The Ways of Translation Neologisms Free Essays

Interpretation Principles for the Translation of Neologism in News Language Abstract on the planet, Chinese and English has both the longest history and a great many people utilized contrasted and some other language. As the general public grew increasingly more rapidly, numerous sort of new data came out. Counting them was that, there were a great deal of neologisms in Chinese words. We will compose a custom exposition test on The Ways of Translation Neologisms or then again any comparable subject just for you Request Now Numerous individuals who do English interpretation study found that it is a lot harder to decipher these words than any others. New words were conceived from the vestige, and they could miss the most significant things occurred at that point. So interpreting these new words were given significantly more consideration by specialists. New words in this paper are completely founded on neologisms in news language. This theory expected to examine the interpretation of neologism in news language from two aspectsâ€word arrangement of new words and the foundation of new words. And afterward with the assistance of Yan Fu’s Translation Principles for the Translation of neologism in news language, the paper will count some interpretation techniques and a few different ways to improve the nature of neologism in news language. Presentation 1. Attributes of Neologism in News Language 2. Standards for Translation of Neologism in News Language 2. 1Yan Fu’s Translation Principles 2. 2Guidance of Yan Fu’s Translation Principles for the Translation of Neologism in News Language 2. 3Significance of Translation of Neologism in News Language 3. Word Formation of Neologism in News Language 3. 1Adding New Meaning to the Old Words 3. 2Borrowing 3. 3Derivation 3. 4Blending 3. 5Abbreviation 4. Foundation of Neologism in News Language 4. 1Politics and Economy 4. 2Culture 4. 3Society 5. Interpretation Strategies Derived from Word Formation 5. 1Literal Translation 5. 2Liberal Translation 5. 3Transliteration 5. 4Combination of Liberal Translation and Transliteration 5. 5Omission 5. 6Translation According to the Background of Neologism in News Language 6. Approaches to Improve the Quality of Neologism in News Language 6. 1Understand Background Knowledge 6. 2Learn to Look up Newspaper and Magazines for Reference Conclusion Introduction With the advancement of society, legislative issues, economy and some other parts of the world, dialects had been applied significant impact. In other words, an ever increasing number of new words have entered the word bank. Since these new words have a cozy relationship with a wide range of new changes, new patterns and new improvement in our general public, interpreters and mediators have the duty to decipher these new words precisely so outsiders will become familiar with China’s advancement and national condition (Zhang Jian, 2003). You can hear numerous new words, for example, â€Å"blog, MM, lip-synchronizing, Golden week†, even in CCTV1’s news channel like â€Å"House slave, shooters, publicity, the cottage†. On the off chance that you don’t follow the design, you can scarcely comprehend these words. What’s the most significant, you can never discover a school to learn it. As Newmark (2001) once stated, neologism is maybe the non-scholarly and the expert translator’s most serious issue. These days, the methods of getting rubs are different, however the most accommodation thought is from news. We read news from paper, on line, on TV, on radio, etc . Thus, for helping other people to peruse and decipher with such huge numbers of neologism, this paper will examine the definition and the word’s development of neologism in news language. And afterward the paper will specify a few interpretation systems and a few different ways to improve the nature of neologism in news language. 1. Attributes of Neologism in News Language As Chen Chuxiang (1998) stated: neologisms are relative. Today is another word, and it might be not tomorrow. Zhang Jian (2007) thought, â€Å"News reports are available to the general population, mirror the pattern of times quickly, and hold obligation regarding the entire society. These attributes have decided the essential standards of news reportsâ€honesty, precision and reasonableness. Accordingly, interpretation of news language should likewise consent to these standards, and be straightforward. In addition, Zhang Jian (2008) likewise stated, as a part of interpretation, news interpretation ought to conform to the standards of interpretation, as well. Simultaneously, thinking about the extraordinary requests of news inclusion and the way that it is distributed to general society, and promptly mirrors the pattern of our occasions, while doing news translation,one should treat these fundamental standards significantly more deftly. One should think of the particular techniques when meeting explicit issues (Zhang Jian, 2007). As Nida, E. A. what's more, Taber, C. (1982) when called attention to, â€Å"each language has its own genius†¦ Rather than power the proper structure of one language upon another, the successful interpreter is very arranged to make all conventional changes important to imitate the message in the particular auxiliary types of the receptor language. † The Oxford Dictionary of New Words (1991) characterizes another word as word; expression or implying that came into well known use or delighted in a vogue during a specific timeframe. These words is supposed to be the â€Å"weather report† to reflect the character all sort of zone and time of the word. 2. Standards for Translation of Neologism in News Language 2. 1Yan Fu’s Translation Principles Translation standards and measures can offer guidance to interpreters. Additionally, they are the gauges to quantify interpretation quality (Wang Qi Yang Jingning, 2003). In China, since the extraordinary researcher Yan Fu set forward the three standards of â€Å"faithfulness†, â€Å"expressiveness†, â€Å"elegance†, in excess of a hundred years has passed. However it despite everything applies incredible impact for the current interpretation movement. As per Shen Suru (1998), â€Å"faithfulness† implies that the deciphered rendition should initially be valid and faithful to the first form. Once in a while, so as to loyally pass on the importance of the first content, type of the objective language may not be predictable with the source language. â€Å"Expressiveness† alludes to the rule that the substance of the first form (counting meaning, data, style and so forth) ought to be communicated in the objective language quite well with the goal that perusers can completely comprehend its unique significance. Elegance† implies that the style of the objective language must be consistent with that of the source language. â€Å"Elegance† worries about the language style, along these lines, when discussing the guideline of â€Å"elegance†, individuals will for the most part center around the interpretation of an entry. Since this proposition center around the words interpretation, the standard of â€Å"elegance† won't be talked about here . So as to keep away from different sorts of wrong interpretations and to improve the interpretation nature of new words, we ought to secure the primary standards of new words interpretation. . 2Guidance of Yan Fu’s Translation Principles for the Translation of Neologism in News Language ( 2. 2 , ) While utilizing Yan Fu’s interpretation standards to educate the interpretation of neologism, we should give a lot of consideration to numerous perspectives extraordinary the accompanying three. As a matter of first importance, the essential standards of news reportsâ€honesty and precision require the interpreter to completely comprehend the significance of the neologism in news language, and to decipher it precisely, with no error or bending. Second, the guideline of reasonableness necessitates that the interpreted variant must be objective, with no passionate factor, for example, separation. Third, since news reports are available to the general population, interpretation of neologism in news language must take each person’s instruction foundation into thought, attempting to be as plain as could reasonably be expected and abstaining from utilizing some obscure words. Exploration about the word arrangement of neologism in news language will assist interpreters with learning progressively about the inception of new words. Some neologism in news language is created from the bygone one. So it must have some association with the bygone one. Having known the word arrangement of new words, one can undoubtedly comprehend the significance. From this angle, word arrangement can assist interpreters with holding fast to the guideline of â€Å"faithfulness†. In any case, not all the new words will show their significance through their promise arrangement. We can not comprehend their importance by their promise development. Jia Wenbo (2008) when called attention to in the CE Translation for Current Affairs: from the point of view of semantics, the significance of a specific word can be assembled into implication and reference. Reference implies a phonetic structure that alludes to the genuine, physical world; it manages the connection between the etymological component and the non-semantic universe of experience. It will be irritated by the outside components, similar to setting. Undertone alludes to the significance of a word that is included by its clients. It is past the language itself and identifies with people’ feeling and social practices. In some cases, it can have political criticalness, social noteworthiness, situational importance, noteworthy hugeness, social centrality and different implications in a specific social condition. It for the most part rises up out of peoples’ feeling and thinking. Consequently, this sort of importance is abstract and is difficult to find. Generally it takes cover behind the reference. Its appearance features logical factor, social factor, individual inclination. The precise importance is questionable. For such sort of new words, we should give more consideration to their experience data. As a rule, their experience data may give us some insight about their importance. Clearly foundation data is helpful for the comprehension of the importance if neologism in news language. So foundation data will do a ton for

Little Victories Build Writers :: Writing Authors Literature Essays

Little Victories Build Writers In Chapter 12 of Creating Writers, Spandel perfectly remarks on page 364 that â€Å"little triumphs assemble writers,† (Spandel 2001). This announcement, as short and straightforward as it might sound, was the hidden subject from this week’s readings, regardless of whether it involves smaller than expected exercises on fiction, steady criticism and modification, or offering positive acclaim on students’ composing. It is the little amendments, little consideration, and the little ‘point in the privilege direction’ that assists understudies with arriving at their potential as essayists. There were such a significant number of stories and models Spandel offered her crowd to show how significant the quality and demeanor remarks are. I concur that input has been a promoter and obstruction in my composition and I wager the greater part our LLED class could agree. I particularly adored the instances of negative criticism or â€Å"unconstructive feedback† that’s excessively broad. â€Å"Be increasingly succinct, progressively explicit, and needs work,† have been seen very well. As teachers, we should stop this! I will not turn into an instructor that understudies detest composing for. We should applaud scholars when they do well to build their inspirations and goals to become fruitful essayists. I additionally significantly profited by her recommendations to advance update and understudy composing. Taking a gander at a gathering as a short â€Å"chat,† taking a gander at the meeting as a way to show the understudy you care about their composition, and utilizing the meeting for bobbing thoughts off one another (one on one), are some extraordinary thoughts. Friend audit and companion alter are two other significant techniques for composing evaluation. I should concede, I didn’t think there was a determinable distinction between the two techniques. I making the most of her clarifications of doling out letter evaluations to numeric-6 attribute reviewing. I was under the confusion that a 5=A, 4=B, 3=C, etc. Spandel explained that well for me. Be that as it may, I discover her assessment of reviewing ridiculous. I feel understudies need rivalry and an objective. Now and again it enables understudies if outward objectives to commend or start the students’ natural objectives. Particularly in a period of raising and testing for gauges, grades are important and unavoidable.

Three Things That Are Awesome

Three Things That Are Awesome Numbers 1: MEnging I graduated in June, but Im not gone yet! Due to a great program in Course 6 (Electrical Engineering and Computer Science) at MIT, I am able to stay on to complete a Masters Degree. The M.Eng program in Course 6 is something students can apply for in their junior year. They then start to integrate graduate-level courses with their regular courseload. This puts them in position to finish all of the requirements for the Masters degree as well as the Bachelors in only 5 years. (If the two degrees were completed sequentially, they would generally take a total of 6 years.) Besides the time-savings, I am excited about this program because it offers a way to cap off a lot of theoretical learning with one big project that requires actual application of the ideas. I also happen to have absolutely *amazing* advisers. Were working understanding how humans produce speech more on that in a later post. Number 2: Learning to Teach Ive joined the Scheller Teacher Education Program (STEP) this fall. Its basically a crash-course series of classes on education in theory and practice. The theory side covers issues such as, Should we be developing students creative thinking skills or giving them practical lessons and vocational training? The practice side teaches us the nitty gritty of discipline, lesson planning, and how to get students attention. STEP also includes classroom observation, and eventually teaching in nearby schools! Number 3: Randomites Though Im living in an apartment now, I still take time to go back to Random Hall. One must-experience event at Random is their fall rush, designed to introduce freshmen to their unique culture. I attended a great new event this year, led by ch3cooh 11. There were three parts to the event: building MIT out of candy, rolling it up into katamari, and eating it! Here are some pictures of the process shot by Zev 08, M.Eng 09: Step 1: Building MIT out of candy. The big peanutbuttery gob with the Hersheys kisses on it is labeled Stata. Nearby are graham cracker representations of the two parallel buildings of East Campus and the Green building (the tallest building in Cambridge!) You can see the blue jello version of the Charles River flowing through the center. Im not sure whose idea the snow-capped mountains or volcano were I havent seen them around campus. Step 2: Rolling it up into katamari. We started with a small glob of chocolate and marshmallow mixture, and rolled our katamari around the board while listening to remixes of the song (the song can be heard on this Youtube video. Step 3: Eating it! This was harder for some people than for others Post Tagged #Random Hall

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy And Music Therapy - 1629 Words

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy and Music Therapy Music Therapists (MTs) borrow from a range of non-music based therapy models in their development of Music Therapy-specific treatment models. Many widely used Music Therapy (MT) techniques have their roots in psychological theories and treatment models. Cognitive Behavioural Music Therapy (CBMT) draws on the widely-used and extensively researched psychology approach, Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), to address CBT goals through MT interventions. Despite the many parralels between CBT and MT there is limited literature on CBMT; the existing literature indicates that CBMT may be an effective treatment for clients with a variety of needs. Improvisation in CBMT makes up an even smaller portion of the literature, however the theoretical underpinnings of the CBT approach are congruent with the use of music improvisation. CBT was first described by Professor Aaron Beck in the early 1950’s (Wilding Milne, 2008). In contrast with many of the psychological therapy models of the time, CBT was based on the belief that maladaptive thoughts and behaviours arise not from what has happened in our lives, but from how we think about what has happened to us (Taylor, 2006; Newman, 2013). A variety of approaches are considered to fall within the domain of CBT – these include Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (Dryden, 2009), Beck’s CBT approach, and Meichenbaum’s Cognitive Behaviour Modification (Meichenbaum, 1977) These approaches share 3Show MoreRelatedMusic Therapy : Where Does It Stand?1605 Words   |  7 PagesMusic Therapy: Where Does It Stand? When one needs psychotherapy, there are several options. Most people use one or more of these five types: body psychotherapy, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), existential psychotherapy, interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), or relational psychotherapy (Jefferies). 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In this paper I will attempt to explore some areas within a cognitive intervention such as: †¢ What population participates inRead MoreAnxiety, Depression, And Medications1595 Words   |  7 Pagesthere s psychotherapy and biomedical therapy.. Psychotherapy is a â€Å"psychological treatment that employs various methods to help someone overcome personal problems, or to attain personal growth, and biomedical therapy involves medication and/or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders.† (OpenStax, 2016). People who go through psychotherapy basically talk about their past with a professional or a family/friend. Biomedical therapy also known as â€Å"drug therapy† has people put on medications thatRead MoreDescription Of A Leader X773 Words   |  4 Pages Theoretical Formulation Leader X’s case is well suited for conceptualization using cognitive behavior therapy. The CBT approach focuses on thoughts and how they influence behavior and feelings. The cognitive interventions aim to modify maladaptive cognitions while the behavioral interventions aim to decrease maladaptive behaviors and increase adaptive ones (Craske, 2010). CBT is a problem focused therapy, so according to this approach we can immediately begin addressing and fixing his problemsRead MoreTreatment Of Schizophrenia And Generalized Anxiety Disorder1427 Words   |  6 Pageselectroconvulsive therapy when the disease is extensive (Watson, 2005). The complications in the treatment of the disease include headaches and disorientation. Schizophrenia is disease of the mind that makes it arduous for an individual to tell between the real and what is unreal. The symptoms of schizophrenia include obscured thinking depression and hallucinations among others. The treatment of schizophrenia ranges fr om pharmacotherapy to psychosocial interventions such as skills training, family therapy and

The Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne - 1187 Words

Within his 1850 romance novel, The Scarlet Letter, Nathaniel Hawthorne produces a storyline which progresses with a somewhat ambiguous protagonist. The obvious answer appears to be the book’s main character, Hester Prynne. After analyzing the text, Arthur Dimmesdale possesses many of the distinct qualities that define a novel’s protagonist and therefore raises the question of who is Hawthorne’s central character? Although he enters the plot as a rather unfavorable character, Dimmesdale owns three of the most important qualities for a literary protagonist. He has a distinct problem that needs to be fixed, he is held back by an opposing force, and he shows the ability to transform into a better, stronger individual. Although he is not an immediate answer for who plays the role of protagonist in The Scarlet Letter, Arthur Dimmesdale proves to be a worthy candidate of the position as he attempts to overcome his guilt caused by sin. Arthur Dimmesdale’s place in society is subject to a large amount of scrutiny and irony because he holds the position of a Puritan minister, someone who must follow the word of God closely, yet he has wrongfully sinned. By participating in the acts of adultery with Hester Prynne, Dimmesdale places himself in an emotional trap because he cannot admit his wrongdoing to the public. His dilemma exists based on the fact that his soul will be tarnished in the eyes of God if he admits to his actions, but holding the news inside is even more painful on anShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1242 Words   |  5 PagesLYS PAUL Modern Literature Ms. Gordon The Scarlet Letter The scarlet letter is book written by Nathaniel Hawthorne who is known as one the most studied writers because of his use of allegory and symbolism. He was born on July 4, 1804 in the family of Nathaniel, his father, and Elizabeth Clark Hathorne his mother. Nathaniel added â€Å"W† to his name to distance himself from the side of the family. His father Nathaniel, was a sea captain, and died in 1808 with a yellow fever while at sea. That was aRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne960 Words   |  4 Pages3H 13 August 2014 The novel, The Scarlet Letter, was written by the author Nathaniel Hawthorne and was published in 1850 (1). It is a story about the Puritan settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, set around 1650 (2). The story is written in the third person with the narrator being the author. The common thread that runs through this novel is Hawthorne’s apparent understanding of the beliefs and culture of the Puritans in America at that time. But Hawthorne is writing about events in a societyRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, By Nathaniel Hawthorne919 Words   |  4 Pagessymbolism in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"The Scarlet Letter†. Symbolism is when an object is used in place of a different object. 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The time frame of the puritans resulted in Hawthorne eventually thinkingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne999 Words   |  4 Pages Nathaniel Hawthorne is the author of the prodigious book entitled The Scarlet Letter. In The Scarlet Letter, Hester Prynne commits adultery with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. Her husband, Roger Chillingworth, soon finds out about the incident after it becomes clear that she is pregnant. The whole town finds out and Hester is tried and punished. Meanwhile, Roger Chillingworth goes out then on a mission to get revenge by becoming a doctor and misprescribing Dimmesdale. He does this to torture DimmesdaleRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne1037 Words   |  5 Pagesthat human nature knows right from wrong, but is naturally evil and that no man is entirely â€Å"good†. 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Similar to Hester and Dimmesdale, Roger Chillingworth allows his emotions to influence his life; however, his influence came as the result of hi s anger. Throughout the book, Hawthorne documents how Dimmesdale and Hester s different ways of dealingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1714 Words   |  7 PagesSome two hundred years following the course of events in the infamous and rigid Puritan Massachusetts Colony in the 1600s, Nathaniel Hawthorne, descendant of a Puritan magistrate, in the 19th century, published The Scarlet Letter. Wherein such work, Hawthorne offered a social critique against 17th Massachusetts through the use of complex and dynamic characters and literary Romanticism to shed light on said society’s inherent contradiction to natural order and natural law. In his conclusive statements

The AIDS Epidemic Free Essays

Ever since the initial description of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1(HIV-1) and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2(HIV-2) in the early 1980s, these two viruses have been repeatedly confirmed to be the causative agents behind Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS). HIV-1 is the most predominant cause of AIDS in the world today and developing countries in Asia, South America and Sub-Saharan Africa bear the brunt of the AIDS epidemic (Hoffman et al 2007).   AIDS is a condition that is caused by immune system deficiency. We will write a custom essay sample on The AIDS Epidemic or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is a syndrome since it encompasses a pattern characterized by different symptoms presenting with varied manifestations. As an acquired condition or disease, infection is transmitted from person to person via specific transmission routes. These modes of transmission sets it apart from the numerous immune system diseases which are mainly genetic related or caused by anti-cancer as well as immune suppressing therapies. The first instances of AIDS infection can be traced to between 1979-1980 where HIV infections presented as a new disease that had never existed in medical practice or terminology (Chandramouli Hubley 1995). AIDS among African Americans In 1981, Los Angeles doctors noticed a new disease. They were baffled that young men who were apparently healthy began developing pneumonia like disease caused by a microorganism that had never been detected before. It was strange because it was known that pneumocystis only caused disease among those with a compromised immune system. In New York, doctors began recording a new disease among young men. They identified the disease as being Kaposi’s sarcoma because it damaged the immune system. One strange fact was that all the men infected were homosexuals, many of whom had contracted other sexually transmission infections like syphilis and gonorrhea. They reached a conclusion that the new disease must also be sexually transmitted (Chandramouli Hubley 1995). The same symptoms were also found to be prevalent among the intravenous drug users and hemophiliacs. Since many of the drug users shared needles, researchers concluded that the disease was also transmitted through body fluids like blood. Since AIDS was mainly concentrated among gays and drug users who were mainly blacks a misconception arose due to the inherent discrimination and the disease was not tackled as it should have been. The result was a rapid spread of AIDS among the black community. The underlying socioeconomic and political factors helped to further fuel the AIDS epidemic among African Americans. Currently, African Americans are still disproportionately affected by HIV/AIDS. While blacks constitute only 13% of the entire US populace, 49% of AIDS cases are found among blacks. It has also been established that AIDS is the leading cause of mortality among Black women in the age bracket 24-34. Among men in the age group 33-44, AIDS is the second leading cause of death (http://www.hhs.gov/). Among African Americans, statistics show that more than 36% of all AIDS cases are attributable to homosexual/bisexual activity and approximately 38% are attributable to intravenous drug injections. Infections due to heterosexual contact account for approximately 12% of infections. This puts black Americans at a much higher risk of contracting HIV/AIDS, mainly due to same-sex sexual behavior, than other racial categories like Hispanics and Whites. The magnitude of the AIDS scourge among Black Americans is also due to a history of discrimination and neglect in instituting measures aimed at promoting a deviance from bisexual activity and other measures of prevention among the black community. The misperception that AIDS was only concentrated among blacks buttressed with the risk factors has served to worsen the AIDS scenario to this day (Levine et al 1997). The Origin of AIDS Ever since the AIDS epidemic became a reality, several theories and evidences have been put forward to try and explain the origins of the AIDS epidemic. Just like any controversy, various fronts of argument have made it almost impossible to clearly confirm the exact origin of the virus. However, there is evidence that the retrovirus incriminated in causing AIDS has been in the environment even before AIDS as a disease became its worldwide spread. The current debates on the origins of the AIDS epidemic is not limited to the biological factors but has also been complicated by various political, social and economic theories that not only attempt to provide an explanation on the nature of the spread; as in among African Americans, but also provide scientific evidence to the extent that the virus was a product of genetic engineering. Initially, as the virus spread among the African American community, the disease and its etiologic agent remained largely unknown to the medical community. It has also not been resolved whether the virus originated from American soil or from African soil. The first pandemic is believed to have its origin in America but the second epidemic causes by the HIV-2 have its center in West Africa. At the same time it is also believed that HIV-1 began to spread via three distinct routes; two routes have been traced to North America, while third route has been traced to Central Africa. It is uncertain whether the American and the African routes possess any relation whatsoever. The origin of the AIDS virus is attributed to an assertion made at a Congressional Hearing in 1969. It was predicted that the US military was in the process of developing a super germ for its use in the biowarfare program. The development of the new germ was to be made possible by the advancement in genetic engineering. The super germ would also have the capacity to wipe out massive human populations. Its mode of transmission would make ineffective any human intervention ton prevent its spread. The Department of Defense spokesperson is on record for having said that, â€Å"Within the next five to ten years, it would be possible to produce a new infective microorganism which could differ in certain important respects from any known disease causing organisms. Most important of these is that it might be refractory to the immunological and therapeutic processes upon which we depend to maintain our relative freedom from infectious disease†(Testimony given before the Sub-Committee of the House Committee on Appropriations, Department of Defense Appropriations for 1970, Washington, 1969) (Cantwell 1992, p 137). This initial assertion was later on buttressed by J. Clemmesen; a Copenhagen epidemiologist in 1973 when lecturing cancer researchers. He presented a visualization of a situation in which a virus could naturally or be scientifically being induced to mutate to produce a very contagious variant capable of causing an epidemic and thwarting any chances of vaccination. A decade after the Congressional hearing, the predictions seemed to have become a reality with the coming of the AIDS epidemic spreading throughout the world despite interventions to prevent its spread. By 1985, four years after the first case of AIDS had been reported by doctors in excess of 130 countries had confirmed AIDS within their borders. This position of the origin conclusively shows that AIDS originated from the military laboratories (Cantwell 1992). How to cite The AIDS Epidemic, Papers

Sibling Incest free essay sample

J Fam Viol (2009) 24:531–537 DOI 10. 1007/s10896-009-9251-6 ORIGINAL ARTICLE Sibling Incest: A Model for Group Practice with Adult Female Victims of Brother–Sister Incest Kacie M. Thompson Published online: 5 June 2009 # Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2009 Abstract Working with groups of people who have been sexually abused introduces mutual experiential themes into the process that can be beneficial and meaningful. This paper discusses brother–sister incestuous sexual abuse with implications for group work. Literature and research is reviewed concerning sexual abuse, incest, family relationships, and theories that aid in explaining incest. Themes covered include: effects of incest, coping methods, blaming, and family of the victim. Common themes are explored and implications for group work are suggested on the basis of length, detail, structure, content, and pre-group contact. Keywords Sibling incest . Group practice . Group therapy Sibling incest is widely believed by researchers and clinicians to the most common type of incest (Carlson et al. We will write a custom essay sample on Sibling Incest or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page 006). Historically, the issue of father–daughter incest has been most often referred to when speaking of incest as a form of sexual abuse; and the concept of sibling incest has been ignored. Despite the high occurrence of sibling incest and its negative effects, attention to this issue by the family, researchers, and professionals has been lacking (Bass et al. 2006). In fact, violence between siblings is much more prevalent than child abuse by parents (Kiselica and MorrillRichards 2007). The purpose of this discussion is to highlight the experience of victims of sibling incest by shedding light on their feelings, thoughts, and mental and emotional issues that are a result of incestuous abuse. Based on the understanding of the sibling relationship and aspects of sibling incest, a model for group therapy is introduced K. M. Thompson (*) University of Montana, Missoula, MT, USA e-mail: [emailprotected] com for adult female victims of brother–sister incest. Aspects, such as sibling elationships, effects of brother sister incest, the family, blaming, coping, and theoretical frameworks, are discussed to inform group work with victims. The Sibling Relationship Incest Siblings share a unique relationship bound by genetics, social class, history, and family connections. The sibling relationship often outlasts many other relationships (Bass et al. 2006). The sibling relationship is unique in longevity and can be one of the most influential relationships in one’s life. Because of this, the impact siblings have on one another should not be underestimated (Kiselica and Morrill-Richards 2007). This unique relationship that siblings share is sometimes the reason why incidences of sibling incest are regarded as â€Å"sexual curiosity†. This view of sexual curiosity is often accepted by family members and the details of that curiosity are not fully understood (McVeigh 2003). Sibling incest is defined as sexual behavior between siblings that is not age appropriate, not transitory, and not motivated by developmentally appropriate curiosity. Sexual abuse between siblings is not limited to intercourse. It has been shown that unwanted sexual advances, sexual leers, and forcing a sibling to view pornographic material can have as much of a psychological impact on the victim as actual intercourse (Kiselica and Morrill-Richards 2007). There are many forms of sexual abuse, but the negative effect incest poses on the victim and the family cannot be ignored. The sibling relationship and the causes of sibling incest have been addressed in several ways. Some authors such as McVeigh (2003), note the importance of the power dynamic between the brother and sister, as that dynamic is caused by age difference and gender expectations. Haskins (2003) 532 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:531–537 states that incest with a younger sibling by an older sibling is motivated largely by urges to satisfy underlying emotional needs for nurture and comfort rather than a need for sexual gratification. The offender’s behavior has sometimes become an outlet to express his unconscious needs. To fully understand the victim and offender’s relationship, family contexts should be examined. Perhaps the victim feels and behaves in similar ways due to the dysfunction in the family environment and the possible need for comfort and acceptance, which will be discussed in relation to family details. Common Experiences: The Effects of Sibling Incest Reactions to incestuous sexual abuse vary from person to person, depending on the severity, duration, and family reaction to the abuse. Victims of sexual abuse experience long-term difficulties including psychological, sexual, and relationship problems (Brand and Alexander 2003). Victims of incest have many feelings, emotions, and issues to deal with in order to cope with the abuse they experienced. Victims of sibling incest exhibit a wide variety of psychological problems. Sexual sibling abuse creates fear, anger, shame, humiliation, and guilt (Kiselica and MorrillRichards 2007). Along with those feelings, victims can also have severe depression and feelings of helplessness (Martens 2007). Sometimes these feelings can lead to suicidal thoughts, and sexual promiscuity; two aspects that are very common in sexually abused women (Rudd and Herzberger 1999). In order to understand the many effects of abuse and the long-term consequences, aspects, such as blaming, coping, and forgiveness, will be addressed under the framework of issues to be addressed during group work with victims of sibling incest. Family of the Victim Family systems theory has been utilized by clinicians to aid in the understanding of sibling abuse. Family systems theory supports the understanding of the sibling relationship within the familial realm by viewing the sibling relationship as just one piece in the family puzzle. The family environment is an interactive, interdependent network in which the behavior of each individual or subsystem modifies the behavior of other individuals or subsystems. This environment is quite intimate, and if the network begins to break down, it often fosters violence. Through this, the family systems outlook shows that sibling abuse and incest cannot be considered an isolated problem but should be seen as a manifestation of family dysfunction (Haskins 2003). The importance of the family should always be examined in cases of sibling incest. Bass et al. (2006) note that each member of the family will hold a unique perspective and position on the issue of incest and sexual abuse; which in turn models how the woman involved in that abuse will react or respond to the abuse and the treatment that may follow. Sibling incest occurs in families with some common characteristics (Phillips-Green 2002). Abusive and incestuous families have high levels of personal, social, and economic stress; substance abuse; and exaggeration of patriarchal norms; and parenting skills are consumed with high levels of frustration, with punitive or harsh childrearing styles (Haskins 2003). Systems theory aids in the understanding that what one person does effects another, which effects another. The family dynamics that housed the sibling abuse can have negative effects on the victim in how she views herself and how she will parent her children based on how she was raised. Whatever the case, sibling incest is painful and damaging, whether the families are relationally connected or distant (Bass et al. 2006). Not only does the family play an important role in examining the bigger picture of the victim’s life, but it also provides insight into the individual and her treatment process. With brother–sister incest, the victim and the perpetrator are both in the family unit, and that unit can be strongly effected by disclosure of abuse. Disclosure can create emotional distress which may lead to the breakdown of the family, disclosure can also cause blaming to occur. It has been shown that blaming is often a large factor in the disclosure process. The parents and teachers often blame the victim for the abuse instead of providing support (McVeigh 2003). The victim has already endured the abuse, the shroud of secrecy, and in the moment she thinks she will begin to overcome this abuse she is often ridiculed and blamed for causing the abuse that was inflicted upon her. Cyr et al. (2002) hypothesize through their research that when blaming from the parents occurs, the mother is placed in a loyalty bind, having to choose between her daughter and her son. Depending on the type of relationship the mother has with each child, the blaming could be greatly influenced. The issue of blaming can be reciprocal, as the victim may then blame herself and her mother. Blaming Just as the victim is often blamed for the abuse she endured, blaming can occur by the use of self-blame or by motherblaming. Blaming the self for events that happened are not only damaging but are often associated with feelings of guilt relative to the abuse (Morrow and Sorell 1989). Women that have experienced brother–sister incest may also feel unsafe, and when she believes that she is the one J Fam Viol (2009) 24:531–537 533 to be held responsible for the wrongdoing, she will turn any feelings of rage and hostility away from the perpetrator or her family and place them on herself (Schlesinger 2006). Self-blame and mother-blaming are common ways to deal with feelings of guilt and anger. Mother blaming is supported by the notion that the mother is in some way responsible for the acts of the victim’s brother. Victims of incest often internalize anger, directing hatred and aggression against themselves. When these feelings become too intense, the victim copes with this by focusing her anger on her mother, which allows the victim to externalize her feelings (Jacobs 1990). Looking at family dynamics as well as the specific relationship the victim has with her mother can be useful in understanding coping methods through blaming. processing for the resolution of the trauma, as well as increase the likelihood for poor day to day adult functioning (Brand and Alexander 2003). With a deeper understanding of coping methods, there may be an enhanced opportunity for educating the individual who exhibits those behaviors, as well as other group members. Group Therapy The use of group therapy can be very effective with a variety of populations, especially those that have experienced incest. Group therapy can provide a unique opportunity for self and interpersonal learning because it allows for members to address effects of interpersonal victimization by identifying with other members who have had similar experiences (Wanlass et al. 2006). Although little is known regarding best practice measures to treat victims of sibling incest, options for treatment have been discussed based on the fact that each victim of sexual abuse will be different in the treatment process (Martens 2007). There are several characteristics of sexual abuse that can affect not only the victim, but the treatment process as well. Aspects such as duration of the abuse and the use of force should be examined. As mentioned earlier, the family dynamic should be looked at as well though the lens of how the victim’s disclosure of abuse was received. The victim will be coping with not only the abuse, but the impacts disclosure may have had on the family and the victim as well. Rudd and Herzberger (1999) note four common characteristics among victims coming to receive treatment: enforced secrecy, interpersonal power differentials, influences on sexual development, and individual aftereffects. These researchers state that abused women often felt that by tolerating the abuse and keeping it a secret was a way to hold the family together. This aspect of secrecy in the incestuous relationship is also connected to power dynamics within the relationship. These characteristics as well as sexual development and individual aftereffects can be examined including other issues discussed earlier. Focusing on building strength and resilience in group therapy has been noted by Wanlass et al. (2006) and Anderson (2006). Both authors contend that working through the abuse during the group process can be seen as â€Å"surviving† the abuse, which is an example of resiliency. The group therapy process can be structured and focused to maximize skills associated with resiliency, leading to improved treatment outcomes (Wanlass et al. 2006). Anderson (2006) discusses a change in perspective of how the victim views herself; from the victim to the survivor; which can aid in the process of forgiveness. The topic of forgiveness may be valuable to group members, depending on where each member is in her process of Coping When considering group therapy with women who have experienced sibling sexual abuse, coping mechanisms should be examined to understand what issues and problems the individuals may have due to their coping skills. The way each individual copes with the abuse can be connected to any diagnosis that they may have been given as a result of the abuse. For example, many victims of trauma, especially sexual related trauma display characteristics of Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome (Banyard and Williams 1996). In these situations, group members may need to be taught coping strategies to manage traumarelated anxiety (Foa et al. 1999). Paying close attention to the possibility of or presence of a disorder will be very helpful in group work. Coping has been examined in many ways to aid in the process of understanding how individuals respond to trauma and stress. Brand and Alexander (2003) state there are two types of coping strategies: emotionfocused coping, and problem-focused active coping. Becoming more aware of both of these style of coping will greatly influence effectiveness of group work. Emotion focused coping is rooted in the individual trying to regulate their emotions in dealing with the abuse, and problem-focused active coping is when individuals engage in behaviors in an attempt to manage the problem situation. An example of problem-focused coping is when an individual tries to manage her stress from the abuse through an eating disorder behavior. While the group facilitator learns more about the group members, behavior such as these may arise in discussion. Other coping methods that have been identified include the coping strategy of avoidance. Previous studies have stated that avoidance may be an initial way to cope with the stress of sexual abuse, but in the long term sense the avoidance strategy may increase future symptoms and cognitive 534 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:531–537 understanding the abuse she experienced. Working on forgiveness with group members may aid in the reduction of feelings that cause depression, fear, and anxiety by channeling those feelings and discussing options for positive coping though forgiveness and resiliency. Theoretical Frameworks Guiding Practice Research and information discussed thus far has roots in theory. These theories could lead to a deeper understanding and an enhanced framework for the discussion of incest as well as aid professionals in group work. Attachment theory, symbolic interaction theory, family systems theory, and feminist theory outline the theoretical framework that guides practice with female victims of incest. As mentioned earlier, much of the discussion of incest has its foundation in family systems theory and the significance of relationships family members have ith one another. Alexander and Anderson (1994) note that the family context associated with the abuse often explains more of the long-term effects than the abuse itself. Attachment theory lends itself to this notion by stating that the parent–child relationship is just as important to the child as eating and sleeping. Based on the child’s â€Å"internal working model† of relationships modeled by the parent–child relationship, that model governs how interpersonal relationships are viewed and experienced (Alexander and Anderson 1994). The goal of incorporating an attachment perspective is one of helping the client increase flexibility of though and views in interpersonal relationships beyond the parent– child relationship. This could be especially useful if there have been negative interactions as well as if blaming is occurring. Symbolic interaction theory aids in the exploration of incest by looking at aspects, such as frequency of abuse, degree of self-blame, and family disruption, in relation to how the victim will manifest her self-concept (Morrow and Sorell 1989). Through this theory, how the individual who experienced the abuse views herself is viewed as a social product constructed and developed by the social interactions around that individual. Once again, family relates to this theory and explanation of factors surrounding incest and sexual abuse, but it also reaches beyond to include other important social interactions, such as friends, classmates, etc. Understanding the social constructs present in the victim’s life can create a better understanding of what needs to be dealt with and recognized for effective group therapy to occur. The feminist framework of incest and the victim is centralized around gender and oppression, and the roles that males and females play in society. As discussed earlier, Anderson (2006) speaks of the importance of changing the viewpoint of â€Å"surviving† abuse to overcoming and resisting the abuse through resiliency. This idea of becoming resilient by resisting oppression is focused in categories found to represent resiliency in the face of oppression: being powerless, being silenced, and being isolated. Not only do all three of these aspects describe how an incest victim feels, but Anderson (2006) also argues that they correlate with oppressive resiliency. Introducing this idea of not being an incest ‘survivor’, but being a resilient person with qualities to be proud of, seems much more empowering, and is a great representation of an example of how feminist theory can be applied to group work with victims of incest. Moving past sentiments of oppressed within one’s feelings as well as within society due to one’s gender can be helpful for the victim, especially within a group setting. People can often find strength in numbers, and if other members are making the same conclusions about their lives and their experiences, positive progression can occur. Kreidler and England (1990) make an important point: â€Å"Because incest isolates victims and encourages feelings of guilt, incrimination, and shame, group experiences allow survivors to build self esteem and develop relationships in a protected environment†. Through this, the group process fosters autonomy and a sense of control in its members. Group Model Group therapy for adult female victims of sibling abuse can be approached in many ways. Group facilitators must be able to assist their clients in making sense of their trauma and work through negative emotions, as well as to teach group members healthy and adaptive coping strategies (Wanlass et al. 2006). The basics of group work will be rooted in helping group members work through their experiences while processing their emotions. Through this, connections will often be made with other members based on the shared experience of brother–sister incest. Focus should not only be on the present, but the victim should be able to make connections to the abuse and how her life has been affected. Victims of sibling incest have lifelong problems in many areas including marriage, work, and parenting (Phillips-Green 2002). Once group members begin to make those connections, the possibility for positive change may increase. Northen and Kurland (2001) emphasize the importance of thorough and thoughtful planning to the success of group work (p. 109). In order to address the topics and concerns discussed throughout this paper, the intake process should be thorough in detail and always take into account the elements of the brother–sister incest, finding out if force was used, how long the incest occurred, etc. The facilitator in charge of creating the group should be involved in the intake of members, as well as choosing the time and place J Fam Viol (2009) 24:531–537 535 where the group will meet. The length of the group sessions should be considered. Group therapy can be short term or long term, depending on the desired goals of the facilitator and the needs of group members. Sparks and Goldberg (1994) propose a short term group that is centered within re-educating victims about the dynamics of incest. Victims are often unaware of the widespread incidence of sibling incest experiences, and may feel much less alone in their feelings and issues as a result of the abuse. These authors note the sense of empowerment that women feel by telling their story to others who share similar experiences, as vocalizing the abuse sets it â€Å"free† and places it in the open, as well as helps the woman to continually break feelings of secrecy. There can be advantages and disadvantages to short-term and long-term group models. Short-term groups are more effective for creating connections between victims around a shared experience, but due to the severity and seriousness of sibling incest, the author proposes a long-term group specifically for women who have experienced brother– sister incest. Long-term groups offer more of an opportunity to address issues such as sexuality, sexual dysfunction, and other issues such as secrecy, isolation, and suicidal thoughts that victims often carry with them throughout their lives. This long-term group is a 12-week format, with meetings once per week at two hours per session. Depending on the size of the group and the characteristics of members, private individual sessions outside group meetings may also be arranged. Size can vary, but should be limited to 10 women. Northen and Kurland (2001) make the point that the smaller the group, the more demand on members to be fully involved in the group, and then there is more demand for intimacy of relationships (p. 136). Sparks and Goldberg (1994) mention the importance of realizing that many survivors will be suspicious of anyone in the counselor/professional role because they many have felt they experienced further violation and betrayal from any previous treatment. To begin to look at this, it may be helpful to ask women during intake if they have gone to any treatment previously, as well as how they felt about it. The facilitator should be aware of this prior to the first meeting. The facilitator also needs to make group members aware of the time commitment during the intake process, making sure they know that missing sessions is not encouraged. A possible therapy method that can be incorporated in group work is the use of Cognitive Processing Therapy for Sexual Abuse (CPT-SA). This treatment is an adaptation by Chard et al. 1997) of Cognitive Processing Therapy for rape victims and is intended to extend treatments for childhood sexual abuse by addressing sexual abuse responses and aspects of the abuse (Chard 2005). This 17week therapy method combines the use of individual and group therapy to maximize positive results by utilizing the benefits of group work as well as giving group members individual attention throughout the group process. Alt hough this method is not discussed at length in this paper, it may be useful to examine facets of CPT-SA for possible incorporation in group work with incest victims. The goals, strategies, and topics included in treatment will vary from therapist to therapist; and the goals and topics included in therapy typically reflect the therapists’ own assumptions of the impact of child sexual abuse (Beutler et al. 1994). This author suggests topics that should be addressed in the group are: emotions and feelings, sexuality, family history, effects of disclosure, power/feeling of powerlessness, secrecy, relationship with the offender, relationship with family members, current coping skills, and options for positive change for the future. These can be modified week to week. There really is no way to run a group in a step-bystep manner, as the group process is unique in itself as it takes shape and changes course all on its own. Topics can be presented to the group if there seems to be a lack of conversation or comfort with one another, but once the group members get to know one another topics and discussions will take shape and find their way into discussions even if there isn’t a definite â€Å"plan† for the group that day. For the use of an example, a basic proposed model for group may include: Week 1: Learning about each other What brings you here? Tell us about yourself. How do you feel about being here? Activities may be used to â€Å"break the ice†, writing exercises, etc. Week 2 3: The Family and Disclosure What is your relationship with your family like? Discuss dynamics of the family. What happened when you told about your abuse? Blaming may be discussed here. Week 4 5: Relationship with your brother Relationship changes, start and end of abuse, where the perpetrator is, how that makes you feel. Week 6 7: Depression, guilt, anger, sexual promiscuity. What are you dealing with now? How has the abuse effected you long term? How have you changed? Week 8 9: Coping strategies, positive outlets, self esteem, strength, resilience Week 10, 11, 12: Reflection and growth, closure and celebration The topics included in this example will likely blend and flow from week to week, and should not serve as a rigid foundation for group. Through these suggestions, the facilitator can help the abused woman feel that her sense of victimization is valid, she can help the victim remove 536 J Fam Viol (2009) 24:531–537 self blame, and identify change patterns of self-abuse and self-degradation to promote growth and a higher selfesteem (Kiselica and Morrill-Richards 2007). Given the unique relationship that siblings share, this relationship may become a backdrop to the group process, as well as the family relationships that connect within the sibling subgroup. It is likely that these relationships will go through an on-going assessment and re-definition as group members discover more about themselves in regard to their behaviors, feelings, and relationships with others. Although topics outlined in the example could be introduced to the group for discussion, most of these topics will likely come up due to the nature of the experience and the common aspects that are seen frequently in sibling abused women. The author suggests that the group should be allowed to take their session in the direction they want it to go. To exemplify the power of each group member’s story, it is proposed that letting the group decide what they would like to discuss proves most effective. Sparks and Goldberg (1994) state that the group becomes a forum for humor and creativity as members take advantage of the unique opportunity to express what can not be expressed until someone who can appreciate it is willing to hear it. This creativity of the members should not be underestimated, and every moment of that process should be an empowering reminder for the group members. Most of the literature argues that the group facilitator(s) should be female. The possibility for a co-facilitator should be considered, depending on the size of the group. If the group is small, only one facilitator is needed. The facilitator (s) should have some knowledge and/or experience in crisis and group work. Age should also be taken into consideration. Group members should be 18 years of age and older, as this group is restricted to adult female victims. Commonality and shared experience are extremely important to the success of this group process, and grouping members based on age range will be helpful for members to relate to each other on more levels than one. During the intake process, the facilitator should attempt to arrange the groups based on what they conclude to be the most effective combination of members based on what was discussed with members prior to the initial meeting. The option for diversity should not be ignored, but O’Hare and Taylor (1983) make the important point that the group composition should always be considered in relation to making sure one person in the group does not stand out; for example, one African American woman, one lesbian woman, etc. Once again, thoughtful design of the group cannot be ignored. Group closure may include a celebration of connections and alliances made within the group. The format of closure and celebration should largely be decided by group members. Conclusion Group work with victims of sibling incest can be complex and challenging. It is clear that many factors influence the victim’s life other than the actual abuse. Family dynamics and overall relationships at the time of the abuse and disclosure prove to be extremely important in determining the entire picture of the victim. Once the facilitator becomes more educated about the details of incest and what to expect from group members, she will be able to design the group in the most effective manner. With the help of shared experience and shared knowledge, group members will find connections with one another that will maximize their growth and value of the group therapy experience. References Alexander, P. C. , Anderson, C. L. (1994). An attachment approach to psychotherapy with the incest survivor. 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